The English Language and English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

The English language is a global language (Jenkins, 2015) being spoken by some 1.75 billion people worldwide (British Council, 2013). The dispersal of English as a language occurred through historical developments, which are complex but can predominantly be related to migration and settlement of native English speakers and to colonialism (Gil, 2016). A native English speaker is defined here as ‘a person who has spoken the language in question from earliest childhood’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019, n.p.). 

The growth of the British Empire was a key driver in spreading the English language around the globe (AlHarbi, 2018). Some scholars believe that the teaching of English is a form of linguistic imperialism (Karmani, 2005) and thus should be discouraged if traditional cultures are to be preserved. An alternative view is that English is creatively reshaped by other nations (Kabel, 2005) and is therefore a tool which can be utilised by different cultures.

More modern reasons for the dominance of English as a language include the political and economic power English-speaking countries hold on the world stage, and the scientific and technological developments associated with English (Gil, 2016). Through globalisation, the dominant language grows exponentially, through the successes of international trade and communication leading to even more countries adopting the global language.

In countries where English is not the dominant language, the pressures of globalisation mean that policymakers in those countries must address language-planning as part of the educational process (Habeeb, 2013). It is generally agreed that English is the most taught foreign language in nearly all countries and that it is a top priority in Arab countries especially (Habeeb, 2013). Yet language policies must be created within a complex inter-relational environment which includes religious, social, cultural, political and economic forces. It would be too simplistic to state that the role of EFL is to teach English to non-native speakers because it is the most dominant global language.

It should be mentioned here that questions remain as to which English is being referred to when educators talk about EFL. For example, there is the view that the term EFL should only be used for countries which were never colonised by the British (Jenkins, 2015). This would imply that English is not a foreign language in India, for example. It could be argued that this approach undermines the rich history of the nation (i.e. before the British colonised India). It also raises the problematic question of how far back in history one should look to establish what is, or is not, an English-speaking country. For ease of reference here, EFL within the context of Kuwait will be presented as the Anglo-American type of English commonly associated with English and American individuals teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL).

Further questions relate to the relationship ideology has with a language. There is one argument which states that language is directly related to ideology, with every word being representative of the society in which the ideology arises. An alternative argument is that language is just a tool, is morally neutral, and does not therefore represent any specific ideology. This article will not assume either standpoint throughout, but instead will consider each opposing argument in the analysis of the more nuanced details as they arise.

Negative views of EFL

Value judgements can be made regarding the superiority of English as the default global language, and these judgements can be interpreted in various ways which can reveal a negativity associated with EFL. For example, the attitude that English is the superior language could be viewed as snobbery or could be interpreted as representing some deeper form of cultural supremacy. Jenkins (2015, p.5) refers to a quote by Prince Charles which was reported in the press in 1995 in which he extols the virtues of “proper” English over American English. The attitude to the superiority, or otherwise, of English will depend to a great extent upon a person’s own upbringing. The desire to maintain a traditional form of English is no doubt related to the desire to maintain a status quo. While this is not a negative attitude per se, there remains a certain negativity if others’ perspectives are ignored – in this case, the perspective of the American appropriation of English.

Once a decision is made that English should be taught in a country, there can be concerns about the extent to which the promotion of EFL is at the expense of maintaining cultural identities and classical language skills. As Zakharia (2010) argues, a vicious cycle ensues from people believing in the exclusivity of English, leading to the demand for higher educational standards in English, which in turn reinforces the status of the English language. In Saudi Arabia, concerns have been raised by Islamic scholars that ‘the introduction of English classes in primary schools […] could potentially westernise Saudi children’ (AlHarbi, 2018, p.19). One response to this concern is offered by Mahboob and Elyas (2014) who argue that this risk is only valid if a country’s inhabitants choose to allow such westernisation to occur. However, a study by Karmani (2010) found that almost half of Arabic university students enrolled in both English-medium and Arabic-medium programmes tended to agree that ‘prolonged exposure to English induces Arab students to be more receptive to Western cultural values and more appreciative of American and British youth culture’ (p.110). If prolonged exposure can produce significant changes in attitudes in this way, then the argument that change only happens if individuals allow it to happen is somewhat undermined.

Research by Al-Rubaie (2010) looked at the extent to which English language planning impeded upon traditional linguistic culture in Iceland. Al-Rubaie found that there is the need for governments to address diversity, equity and the right to linguistic traditions when they form their policies regarding language acquisition, and her research highlights how a country’s policymakers need to create a balance between maintaining traditional languages and investing in educational EFL programmes. When the former dominates the latter there is a risk that a country might become isolated from the global market.

In Iceland, Icelandic is perceived as a pure proto-Scandinavian language (Albury, 2016). As a result, Icelandic is valued as a historical and cultural language, with the simultaneous acknowledgement that there is a need to also use English when participating on the global stage. The example of Iceland shows that when the attitude to English as a global language is one of a pervasive yet dominant force, policymakers can still create conditions which are conducive to a country preserving its mother-tongue (Hilmarsson-Dunn, 2006) while still being a player in global markets. Later in this essay it will be demonstrated that there appears to be a similar attitude in Kuwait, with evidence of an openness to English being taught as EFL for the educational benefits it brings, together with a continuing commitment to the preservation of the Arabic language.

The teaching of EFL has become big business around the world with English having become a highly lucrative international commodity (Weber, 2011). Despite this, shortcomings in pedagogical processes have been highlighted. For example, McKay (2002) suggests that there should be three cultures considered when teaching EFL – the source, the target, and the international culture. Even if the textbooks do not always address these three cultures, the skilful EFL teacher should consider these facets, as rEFLecting upon these key aspects can help students develop deeper learning beyond learning mere translation of words. Thus, students can understand more about nuanced meanings and the way in which English can be manipulated depending upon context. As Kabel (2005) states, when talking of English as a resource which can be used to resist any attempt at domination: ‘you can model it the way you want’ (p.138).

Chao (2011) points out that some EFL textbooks are designed to promote different dimensions of culture. Looking specifically at an American publication (New American Inside Out), Chao reveals that there are target areas contained within the content. These target areas include the promotion of popular products, famous (typically Anglo-American) figures, and perspectives of Western societies. Whether these types of publication are deliberately or inadvertently Western-centric is beyond the scope of this analysis. What is important is that teachers can recognise when these potential biases occur and can develop their pedagogical practices so that students can also become aware of these issues.

Lastly, there is the argument that English is continually portrayed as ‘the language of progress, modernity, democracy and national unity’ (Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas, 2013, p.501) and that this is a negative view since it implies that other languages fall short in some way. Promotion of English as the language of progress ignores, for example, the rich history of the Arabic language in fields such as mathematics. With the successful dispersal of English comes the simultaneous ‘westernisation of knowledge’ as is evidenced by the direction of linguistic borrowings occurring from English to Arabic rather than vice versa (Al-Rubaie, 2010, p.191).

Positive views of EFL

One positive view of English is that it is a ‘pluralistic’ language (Gil, 2016, p.51). According to this view, the English language should no longer be thought of as the sole property of native speakers. Rather, English can be used by other cultures as a way of expressing that culture and making it more accessible to other cultures. In other words, the English language can be appropriated to be at the service of its users regardless of their nationality (Weber, 2011). Examples include the way in which English is used in film and music by Asian cultures, and the plethora of English varieties to be found within countries commonly thought of as typically English-speaking, such as the UK. 

Furthermore, because English is used as a mode of expression, meaning can become infused with local culture (Gil, 2016), such that the language is a convenient carrier of cultural meaning, rather than being thought of as something external which imposes meaning upon a culture.

Elyas and Grigri (2014) argue that the learning of English can promote globalisation, the benefits of which include the sharing of technological innovations and social exchanges between different nations and between individuals within different nations. An example of this can be seen in Kuwait’s history, with English being used to train the local workforce in Kuwait following the discovery of oil reserves in the 1930s (Karmani, 2010). However, as Karmani points out, this sharing can also be interpreted as the struggle for control such that English is one of the means by which a foreign power can gain economic benefit from another country’s reserves (Karmani, 2005, pp.9-10).

It is also argued that English ‘makes a significant contribution to sustainable global development’ as it ‘eases trade between countries that do not share a common language’ (British Council, 2013, p.2). It is certainly true that international conversations regarding sustainability – such as debates about climate change – are often conducted in English, and that English facilitates understanding between those countries whose languages are not shared globally.

An even more functionalist view of EFL as it relates to the individual argues that the ability to communicate in English allows greater access to employment and to international business opportunities. The British Council cites examples of the English language affording access: ‘a young woman in Pakistan [can] communicate with a professor in the US’; ‘a farmer in Ghana [can] get international weather reports and commodity prices via his mobile phone’ (British Council, 2013, p.10). In the world of technology, English semantics are embedded within computer codes and protocols (Weber, 2011), thus it will likely be English which will underlie the technological advances of the future. However, this is not assured since there are some scholars who believe that Chinese will replace English as the leading language on the internet (Jenkins, 2015, citing Crystal, 2011). As a purely pragmatic strategy for the time being, it makes sense for countries to invest in EFL due to the positive contribution it makes to a nation’s resources because it means that its citizens are competent in a global language which will facilitate their future prosperity.A further positive aspect of EFL is that Western teachers who go overseas to teach students English will often (although certainly not always) have benefited from rigorous teacher training programmes. Graduates training to be teachers in the UK can achieve qualified teacher status through programmes such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Education, which combines placement with academic research. The academic elements of these programmes seek to address those issues which underlie and improve teaching, such as knowledge of pedagogical practice. When teaching students English, it is crucial that teachers understand the different ways in which learners can develop language skills, and a student-centred approach to learning is favoured within initial teacher training programmes in the UK. The benefits of having a highly trained workforce in teaching leads to the recommendation by the British Council (2013) that the UK uses its strengths in English teaching to enable low and middle-income countries to improve their own systems of education. Although it is possible to teach English as a foreign language without such qualifications, prosperous countries such as Kuwait will typically demand a certain level of education from their potential EFL teachers.

References:

• AlHarbi, Mohammed S. 2018. Exploring English language teaching approaches in Saudi Higher Education in the West Province. Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Glasgow, Scotland. Available at: https://theses.gla.ac.uk/9014/ (Accessed 05 July 2019).
• Al-Rubaie, R. 2010. Future teachers, future perspective – The story of English in Kuwait. Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. Available at: https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/119730/Al-RubaieR.pdf?sequence=1 (Accessed 05 July 2019).
• British Council. 2013. The English Effect: The impact of English, what it’s worth to the UK and why it matters to the world. London: British Council.
• Chao, T. 2011. ‘The hidden curriculum of cultural content in internationally published ELT textbooks: A closer look at New American Inside Out’, The Journal of Asia TEFL, 8(2), pp.189-210.
• Elyas, T. and Grigri, W.H. 2014. ‘Obstacles to teaching English in Saudi Arabia Public schools: Teachers’ and supervisors’ perceptions’, International Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(3), pp.74-89.
• Gil, J. 2016. English Language Education Policies in the People’s Republic of China. In R. Kirkpatrick (ed.) English Language Education Policy in Asia. Cham: Springer, pp.49-90.
• Habeeb, K. 2013. Teachers’ perceptions towards implementing English as foreign language at kindergarten: What can we learn from the case of Kuwaiti Kindergarten teachers? Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Kuwait University, Kuwait City, Kuwait, and the University of Arkansas, Faytteville, Arkansas. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6006/cbf6e6a829a4b8f0e176d5af150f1155520c.pdf (Accessed 04 July 2019).
• Hilmarsson-Dunn, A. 2006. ‘Protectionist language policies in the face of the forces of English. The case of Iceland’, Language Policy, 5(3), pp.295-314.
• Jenkins, J. 2015. Global Englishes: A resource book for students. London: Routledge.
• Kabel, A. 2005. ‘The discourses of appropriation: A response to Karmani (2005)’, Applied Linguistics, 28(1), pp.136-142.
• Karmani, S. 2005. ‘Petro-linguistics: The emerging nexus between oil, English and Islam’, Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 4(2), pp.87-102.
• Karmani, S. 2010. On perceptions of the socialising effect of English-medium education on students at a Gulf Arab University with particular reference to the United Arab Emirates. Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK. Available at: https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/handle/10036/99373/KarmaniS.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y (Accessed 07 July 2019).
• Mahboob, A. and Elyas, T. 2014. ‘English in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’, World Englishes, 33(1), pp.128-142.
• Oxford English Dictionary [online]. 2019. ‘native speaker’. Available at: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/native_speaker (Accessed 05 July 2019).
• Phillipson, R. and Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2013. ‘Linguistic imperialism and endangered languages’. In T.K. Bhatia and W.C. Ritchie (eds.) The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell, pp.495-516.
• Weber, A. 2011. Politics of English in the Arabian Gulf, Paper presented at the 1^st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, May 5-7, 2011, Sarajevo. Available at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/153446761.pdf (Accessed 09 July 2019).
• Zakharia, Z. 2010. Language-in-education policies in contemporary Lebanon: Youth perspectives. In O. Abi-Mershed (ed.) Trajectories of education in the Arab world: Legacies and challenges. Abingdon: Routledge, pp.157-184.

Role of Schools in Preparing Young Learners For Future Adult Life

To begin with, then, the question of the role of state schools in preparing young learners for future adult life is one that must be situated in a broader, macro perspective, as the education system is located within a wider matrix of social phenomenon. On this subject, Qvortrup (2005) states that:

“Social order is not created when a prince with his princely power, the state with its state power or the people with its will binds the society’s atoms together into a whole. No, social order is established when the diversity of communicative systems creates an extremely complex and dynamic stability. Society does not exist on the strength of the purity of social order but rather on the complex impurity of social structures” (p.2).

Therefore, this complex and dynamic social system must be considered when analysing state education, and its role in society, with education being an integral component of this dynamic stability through its function of preparing learners for future adult life and schooling them in the norms, values, and conventions of society. Thus, as the education system does not exist in a social vacuum and is connected to this vast social web in a plethora of ways, it is important to look at this from a structural-functionalist perspective (Hooper, 2013, n.p.), and to consider these macro social processes. Moreover, Vanderstraeten (2004, p.255) also says that education relies very heavily on face-to-face interaction, and so it follows that teachers have a great role to play in such state education.

 In addition, education also has many functions for individuals in society, with one of these functions being social (Dill, 2007, p.222) as schools serve to educate young people on the social norms and conventions of the adult world, and provide a vital source of social interaction in people’s early years, right through to their young adulthood. This is instrumental in for preparing for adult life. Moreover, Chandra & Sharma (2004, p.13) also say that education is vital in preparing for adult life in the contemporary era, and go on to elaborate that livelihood is one of the main aims of education in the twenty-first century, as anyone who is not properly educated is likely to struggle to make a living in the labour market. However, it is also conceded that education fulfils other functions, too, such as aiding in developing a balanced personality and a good character, and in forging responsible and useful citizens who are able to follow the rules of society. Furthermore, Dean (2009) states that: “It might be argued that all education is about preparing children for adult life” (p.189), and a case can certainly be made for this. Nevertheless, it is explained that the functions of early years education and secondary education tend to be different, with preparation such as for employment, marriage or partnership, or parenthood, tending to be more in the realms of secondary education. However, overall preparation for adult life can be seen as a continuum that started before school and continues into nursery school, and right the way through primary and secondary schooling. For example, practice for adult life in the form of cooking, gardening, caring for animals, and learning about how babies are born is all a part of a modern-day curriculum (Dean, 2009, p.189). 

To add to this, Duminy, Dreyer, Steyn, Behr & Vos (1991) state that:

“The anticipating task of the school aims to prepare the student at school for life as an adult. In this regard, the school should make its students aware of the various aspects of adult reality. Schools cannot place every child in a real life situation, therefore, the way in which schools bring about an understanding of the adult reality can be described as artificial. The adult reality forms the basis of the entire school curriculum. This is then artificially translated into school subject fields. Learners at school study these school subjects and, in this simplified and artificial way, come to understand the complex adult reality” (p.202).

This offers a succinct way of describing this process of preparing learners for adult life in the education system, with any curriculum really being a reflection of the kind of things that adults need to know in the adult world. Therefore, it can be said that the role of school curricula is vitally important in this preparation process, and if the curriculum is not finely tuned, this could lead to problems later on both for the individual and for society as a whole. Moreover, as it is teachers who are charged with delivering this curriculum, the role of teachers can be said to be equally important, as this filtering process should not significantly change the intent and purpose of such curricula; otherwise learners will not be adequately prepared for adult life in a uniform way. 

Furthermore, Pellegrino & Hilton (2012, p.31) state that there is much evidence of the role of formal schooling in adult success, including in the areas of work and health. For example, there has been a statistically significant relationship between educational attainment and labour market success since at least the 1970s (Collins, 1971, p.1002), and this is still the case today (Lauer, 2005, p. 167). In addition, educational attainment has not only been found to lead to higher wages, but also to greater adaptability to changes in the workplace, particularly with regard to the use of technology at work (Collins, 1971, p.1002). Killen (2005) also says that: “The debate about the extent to which schooling should focus on preparing students for their lives after school is not new” (p.48). However, the twenty-first century is a very different world than it was several decades ago, so education also needs to be updated to meet the needs of the Information Age. Therefore, in some countries, it could be argued that education systems and curricula are outdated, and are not designed to meet the needs of the contemporary era, an era in which globalisation is all encompassing, and technology permeates every aspect of modern life. Thus, Killen (2005, p.48) has said that schools have been using an industrial age one-size-fits-all delivery system that artificially divides the school curriculum into various subjects in an attempt to create a more efficient form of teaching. Indeed, although this is primarily a reference to education in the West in the 1980s and 1990s, it could be argued that this still applies in most countries today, and particularly in the developing world. Thus, although it is efficient to teach in this way, it is important to periodically update such curricula, to meet the needs of contemporary life. 

In addition, Dean (2002, p.69) also says that preparation for adult life in Western democratic nations should include things such as preparation for life in a democratic society, gaining knowledge about public services, and ideas for leisure. Nevertheless, there is also so much more to preparing for adult life, such as learning about the dangers of substance abuse, sex education, family life education, safety, information about health and exercise, learning about nutrition and personal hygiene, learning about the environment and how to protect it, identifying psychological problems, and so on. Furthermore, Robb & Clements (1991, p.46) also comment that preparation for adult life is rarely completed in puberty, and that much of childhood is now spent in preparation for more advanced forms of schooling, with higher education now viewed as the most important element of preparing for adult life. Thus, the later teen years can also be seen as not being transitioned into full adulthood, with this period also requiring some degree of continued education; otherwise, this might cause some problems and issues in later adulthood. What is clear from this brief review of pertinent literature in this area, though, is that the role of state schools is instrumental in preparing younger learners for future adult life, and this is likely to be the case across all countries. Nevertheless, education needs to be specifically tailored to the particular country and epoch so that current social and economic needs are being met, and so that education is not outdated.

When discussing the role of state schools in preparing young learners for adult life, a functionalist theory of education is useful; this approach that can be traced to the work of Emile Durkheim (Cookson & Sadovnik, 2013, p.267). In addition,  functionalists see society as being interdependent, and made up of various parts that all interact with each other. It is a view of society as a machine of sorts, and functionalism, most importantly, “stresses the processes that maintain the social order by emphasizing consensus and agreement” (Cookson & Sadovnik, 2013, p.267). In addition, Durkheim was also the first sociologist to apply his sociological theories to the field of education, and modern functionalists now believe that education serves a vitally important function in society (Cookson & Sadovnik, 2013, p.267). 

Indeed, Kendall (2010, p.391) suggests that one of the core functions of modern education is that of instilling shared values so that young people grow up to be law-abiding adults who all think and perceive things in similar ways. This might be seen as a type of propaganda, as by teaching children a particular perspective of history and schooling them on ‘good manners’ and what the norms and conventions of society are, this tends to create a particular type of population with their own shared beliefs and values. Of course, there are, as noted, also many other functions of education, too, such as teaching a population the necessary skills and knowledge to power an economy, to manage money, and to understand the dangers of substance abuse, to name just a few more. However, the point is that education provides a vital function in society, as Durkheimian functionalism suggests, and without it, a state of anarchy could arise as a result of the breaking down of norms, values, conventions, and the established rules of society that are taught in schools. 

In addition, Welch (2013, p.30) says that from a Durkheimian functionalist perspective, education has two principle roles, in: (1) the instilling of values, and (2) ensuring the provision of adequate numbers of skilled personnel in the workforce. This succinctly clarifies what the role and function of education is in modern developed societies. However, there are many functionalist explanations of education, and so Hedtke (2013) also explains that education has a political function, in preparing youths to be able to “fulfil key expectations of the political regime and authorities” (p.61). Thus, in democratic societies, this involves having a basic understanding of the voting system, and the role of individuals in the system of governance. Furthermore, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Cubberley (1916, cited in Zajda, 1995, p.i) described education as a process in which children can be viewed as raw materials, in which they are shaped and fashioned to meet the needs of society. Therefore, from this perspective, it is the business of schools to create students according to the specifications laid out by society, and it is thus likely that something similar also unfolded in Kuwait, in respect of education serving a function in society and meeting the needs of a nation. Indeed, at the beginning of the twentieth century in the industrial era, this largely entailed creating a subservient workforce with a strong work ethic who were willing to work long hours in what would now be considered to be substandard conditions. Nevertheless, times have changed and it is now more important to understand how to use modern technology and computers, so this too has been incorporated into most curricula around the world. From a macro perspective, though, schools can be seen as providing a mechanism for maintain social order in society by creating a consensus on agreed upon norms and values, as “learning to obey school rules can be seen as a prerequisite for understanding the laws of society” (Bates & Lewis, 2009, p.78). So, in this sense, schooling is about preparation for adult life as citizens of a particular country. Therefore, Ballantine & Spade (2008, cited in Bates & Lewis, 2009, p.78) elaborate a little on these core functions of education in society, and state that these functions include: (1) socialisation, (2) selection and training, (3) promoting change and innovation, and (4) latent functions such as keeping children off the streets, child minding, and developing youth culture. However, there is an assumption here that schools apply standards equally to all students and children; this does not take into account the diversity of education and society, and that some values might not be universally shared. For example, private schools are generally likely to produce very different students to that of inner-city state schools in underprivileged areas, with educational inequalities being widespread (Lubienski & Lubienski, 2013, p.4), and so social class and affluence is something to also be taken into account. A well-established national curriculum in state schools can clearly go some way towards mitigating such inequalities, and creating a more equal and homogenous society.

References:

• Bates, J. & Lewis, S. (2009) The Study of Education: An Introduction, London: Continuum International Publishing Group.
• Chandra, S.S. & Sharma, R.K. (2004) Sociology of Education, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
• Collins, R. (1971) ‘Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 36, No. 6, pp.1002-1019. Cookson, P.W. & Sadovnik, A.R. (2013) ‘Functionalist Theories of Education’. In: Levinson, D., Cookson, P.& Sadovnik, A. (Eds.) Education and Sociology: An Encyclopedia, London: Routledge (pp.267-273).
• Dean, J. (2002) Managing the Primary School, London: Routledge.
• Dean, J. (2009) Organising Learning in the Primary School Classroom, London: Routledge.
• Dill, J.S. (2007) ‘Durkheim and Dewey and the challenge of contemporary moral education’, Journal of Moral Education, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp.221-237.
• Duminy, P.A., Dreyer, H.J., Steyn, P.D.G., Behr, A.L. & Vos, A.J. (1991) Education for the Student Teacher, South Africa: Maskew Miller Longman.
• Hedtke, R. (2013) ‘Who is Afraid of a Non-Conformist Youth? The Right to Dissent and to Not Participate’. In: Hedtke, R. & Zimenkova, T. (Eds.) Education for Civic and Political Participation: A Critical Approach, New York: Routledge (pp.54-81).
• Hooper, L. (2013) Structural-Functionalism. E-book: GRIN.
• Kendall, D. (2010) Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials, USA: Wadsworth.
• Killen, R. (2005) Programming and Assessment for Quality Teaching and Learning, E-Book: Thomson.
• Lauer, C. (2005) Education and Labour Market Outcomes: A French-German Comparison, New York: Physica-Verlag.
• Lubienski, C.A. & Lubienski, S.T. (2013) The Public School Advantage: Why Public Schools Outperform Private Schools, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Pellegrino, J.W. & Hilton, M.L. (2012) Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21^st Century, USA: The National Academic Press.
• Qvortrup, L. (2005) ‘Society’s Educational System – An introduction to Niklas Luhmann’s pedagogical theory’, International Journal of Media, Technology, and Lifelong Learning, Vol. 1, No. 1., pp.1-21.
• Robb, T.B. & Clements, W.M. (1991) Growing Up: Pastoral Nurture for the Later Years, London: The Haworth Press.
• Vanderstraeten, R. (2004) ‘The Social Differentiation of the Educational System’, Sociology, Vol. 38, pp.255-272.
• Welch, A. (2013) ‘Technocracy, Uncertainty, and Ethics: Comparative Education in an Era of Postmodernity and Globalization’. In: Arnove, R.F., Torres, C.A. & Franz, S. (Eds.) Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (pp.27-59).
• Zajda, J. (1995) ‘Defining Excellence and Quality in Education’. In: Zajda, J.I. & Kach, N. (Eds.) Excellence and Quality in Education, Australia: James Nicholas Publishers (pp.i-xiii).